Which Aphrodisiacs Actually Work?

Oysters. Chocolate. Opium. Ginseng. Spanish Fly. Ambergris. Alcohol. MDMA. What do all of these have in common? Well, aside from the makings of a very wild party, they have all at one time or another been used as aphrodisiacs. Derived from the Greek aphrodisiakon or “pertaining to Aphrodite”, goddess of love, aphrodisiacs are substances believed to enhance the sexual experience either by boosting one’s energy or libido, increasing fertility, enhancing pleasure, or – in the case of philtres or “love potions” – making one more attractive to a potential partner. Sex, whether for pleasure, procreation, or ritual purposes, has lain at the heart of the human condition since the dawn of our species; little wonder, then, that over the centuries a vast amount of medical and pharmacological thought has been devoted to this most basic of biological acts. But do any of the thousands of purported lovemaking aids actually work? Can eating oysters, beetles, or chocolate really help you get it up and get it on? Well, turn off the lights, light up some candles… maybe not in that order, and turn on some Barry White, unless you are Barry White as that would just be weird, and let’s dive into the long, complicated, and fascinating history of aphrodisiacs.

Over the centuries and across every corner of the globe, so many wildly different foods, drugs, and other substances have been prescribed as aphrodisiacs that it is impossible to list them all. Instead, it is more useful to group them into three basic categories: substances with physiological effects, those with psychological effects; and those whose action is based on magic, ritual, or the good old-fashioned placebo effect. Of these three categories, the third is by far the most extensive, for until very recently, medicine, magic, and spirituality were inextricably intertwined. Among the earliest records of aphrodisiac rituals come from the Ancient Egyptians, who worshipped the god of the underworld Osiris and his wife Isis as sources of life and fertility. In one recorded springtime ritual, Egyptians would wash a statue of Osiris in wine and anoint it in oil. Anyone who licked the oil off the statue was thought to be protected from impotence and infertility. Similarly, cultures from around the world prescribed various amulets – often shaped like genitalia – as fertility aids, while an Ancient Greek wine cup dating from the 8th Century B.C.E bears the inscription “Whoever drinks from this wine cup, beautifully crowned Aphrodite’s desire will seize him immediately” – though whether this desire was supposed to derive from Aphrodite’s blessing or the effects of wine itself is unclear.

Other aphrodisiacs known to the Ancient Egyptians included the blue lily and a beetle related to the more famous ‘Spanish Fly.’ Unlike licking oil off of a statue, however, use of these aphrodisiacs had far more of a pharmacological justification, for blue lily is now known to contain compounds similar to sildenafil AKA Viagra. These compounds stimulate the release of nitric oxide into the bloodstream, relaxing smooth muscle tissue and allowing blood to flow into and engorge one’s happy bits. Meanwhile, Spanish Fly and its relatives contain a powerful irritant called Cantharidin which induced inflammation and increased blood flow throughout the body – but more on that later. A far stranger entry in the Egyptian sexual pharmacopeia was the dung of baboons – which, in addition to being the physical embodiment of the gods Thoth and Babi, were revered for their relentless sexual appetites. Indeed, the vast majority of ancient aphrodisiacs were selected not for any observable physiological effects but rather their symbolic associations because humans are stupid. This practice was later codified by first century CE Roman physician Claudius Galen as the Doctrine of Signatures, which held that God had deliberately created each plant to resemble the specific body part it was intended to treat. Thus, if a plant resembled, for example, the human liver, then it was prescribed to treat ailments of that organ because, sure, why not. This is the reason many common plants sport curiously anatomical names, such as liverwort, lungwort, spleenwort, toothwort, and eyebright.

The Doctrine of Signatures was widely applied to the field of aphrodisiacs. For example, Satyrion, a type of ragwort, was thought to resemble male genitalia and was named after satyrs, the mythical half-man, half-goat creatures known for their extreme lustfulness. Infusions of Satyrion were widely used as aphrodisiacs by the Ancient Greeks and Romans, with Roman grooms being given a cup to drink before retiring to the nuptial bed. Similarly, the root of the Mandrake, Mandragora officinarum, often resembles a pair of human legs, and was long thought to possess various magical powers. Among the many superstitions surrounding the Mandrake was that it grew only beneath the bodies of those hanging from the gallows, and that when pulled from the earth the root emitted a scream that would kill instantly. It was thus recommended that Mandrake be harvested by tying the plant to a hungry dog, who would uproot the plant and immediately die. Once the root stopped screaming, it could be handled safely. The use of Mandrake as an aphrodisiac appears throughout ancient history, even being mentioned in the Bible:

Now Reuben went in the days of wheat harvest and found mandrakes in the field, and brought them to his mother Leah. Then Rachel said to Leah, “Please give me some of your son’s mandrakes.” But she said to her, “Is it a small matter that you have taken away my husband? Would you take away my son’s mandrakes also?” And Rachel said, “Therefore he will lie with you tonight for your son’s mandrakes.” When Jacob came out of the field in the evening, Leah went out to meet him and said, “You must come in to me, for I have surely hired you with my son’s mandrakes.” And he lay with her that night.

-Genesis 30:14-16

But Mandrake was also used as a sedative and hallucinogen, and today is known to contain high concentrations of tropane alkaloids like atropine, scopolamine, hyosciaminne, and mandragorine, which in high enough doses can be deadly. It is thus likely that the supposed aphrodisiac properties of Mandrake stem from either the stimulating effects of some alkaloids like atropine or the sedative effects of others like scopolamine, the latter serving to release the user’s inhibitions in a similar manner to alcohol.

In addition to Satyrion and Mandrake, many other foods including asparagus, bananas, cucumbers, strawberries, carrots, and especially oysters have been used as aphrodisiacs due to their resemblance to male or female genitalia. Oysters were a particular favourite of 18th Century Italian writer and libertine extraordinaire Giacomo Casanova, who was said to consume up to 40 in one sitting before lovemaking sessions, as well as feed them to his mistresses to get them in an amorous mood. Indeed, seafood in general has long been regarded as an aphrodisiac due to the Ancient Greek myth of Aphrodite being born from sea foam. And, as is often the case, some have speculated there also may be minor physiological component at play, for oysters, caviar, and other seafood contain high levels of zinc and the amino acids D-aspartic acid and N-methyl D-aspartic acid, which stimulate testosterone production in men. Similarly, honey – another common ingredient in ancient aphrodisiac potions – often contains boron, known to stimulate the release of sex hormones in both men and women.

But whereas some foods were used as aphrodisiacs due to their appearance and symbolic meaning, others were chosen for their sheer rarity and exoticism. As trade with the East exploded near the end of the Middle Ages, European markets were suddenly flooded with all manner of exotic spices, many of which – including saffron, ginger, black pepper, cumin, cloves, ginseng, and vanilla – soon made their way into various health tonics and love potions. Vanilla in particular was especially sought after thanks to the Doctrine of Signatures; when Spanish Conquistadores first encountered the plant in Central America in the 16th century, they noted the resemblance of its pod to female genitalia and named it vainilla, Latin for “little sheath” and the diminutive form of vagina.

Another exotic product of the spice trade highly sought-after as an aphrodisiac was ambergris, a rare waxy substance formed from the poop of sperm whales. Widely used in the perfume industry as a fixative and scent enhancer, it still commands high prices today. It was also a favourite of Casanova, who in his memoirs lists an impossibly decadent recipe for chocolate cream infused with ambergris and vanilla. Equally exclusive and highly-touted as an aphrodisiac were truffles, which 19th Century French gastronomist Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin claimed could: “…on certain occasion, render women more tender and men more friendly.” However, as being able to afford luxuries like truffles, oysters, or caviar is an indication of wealth and status – attractive qualities in their own right – other, more psychological factors may be at play here.

Another ancient doctrine which guided the selection of ancient aphrodisiacs was the Four Humours theory of medicine, typically attributed to 4th Century B.C.E physician and “Father of Modern Medicine” Hippocrates of Kos. This theory held that the human body contained four fluids or humours – blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile – which controlled a person’s health and temperament. This is why, even today, one’s personality is still sometimes described as sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, or bilious and the word “humour” is synonymous with “mood”. Disease, it was believed, was caused by an imbalance of the humours, and it was the job of the physician to restore this balance through various means including bloodletting and purging. Each of the four humours was also associated with a particular combination of temperature and moisture, which in turn were tied to the four seasons. Blood, tied to spring, was hot and wet; Yellow Bile, tried to summer, was hot and dry; Black Bile, tied to autumn, was cold and dry; and Phlegm, tied to Winter, was cold and wet. Thus, physicians could also correct humoral imbalances by prescribing foods of the opposite “quality” of whichever humour was in excess. In the context of sex, female infertility was blamed on the womb being “cold”, so “hot” foods like sugar like ginger were prescribed. Male infertility, by contrast, was linked to excessive heat. Physicians like Hippocrates thus recommended “cold” foods including the so called “windy meats” like beans, lentils, and peas. As these foods infamously induce flatulence or “wind”, the logic went, they could thus cool down the blood. So just remember, directly before spicy time with your partner, be sure and let one go. It’s science…

Finally, many ancient aphrodisiacs were rooted in the practice of opotherapy or organotherapy, the use of the glands or animals – or extracts thereof – to cure human diseases. Originally, this practice was based on similar principles to the Doctrine of Signatures, with Claudius Galen stating in On the Natural Faculties that:

“The maintenance and the proper functioning of an organ is affected by the like organ, because every body and each part of the body has its special faculty.”

Only much later was it discovered that animal glands secrete various hormones which produce similar effects in human bodies as they do in their original hosts. In an attempt to impart the sexual prowess of animals upon their patients, ancient physicians and apothecaries prescribed a variety of exotic concoctions prepared from their sexual organs. The 4th Century Indian sex manual Kama Sutra, for example, recommends boiling goat or ram’s testicles in sweet milk, while The Perfumed Garden, a similar 15th Century guide written by Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Nefzawi, includes a potion made from the penis or vulva of a jackal. The eggs and testicles of various birds (especially sparrows) were also widely prescribed – as were their brains, based on Galen’s belief that sperm was produced in the brain.

And opotherapy was not strictly limited to the use of animals, with many Ancient Roman aphrodisiacs and philtres containing the semen of young men or the menstrual blood of young women for a fun Saturday night. Today, a variant of this approach survives in the form of tonics and diet supplements containing testosterone. However, clinical studies on these products have shown little measurable effect on libido, while long-term consumption of oral synthetic testosterone is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

But to sum up this section, in the ancient world, aphrodisiacs were largely chosen according to various mystical or outdated medical doctrines or simply for their opulence and exoticism. And while, as we shall see, some of these ancient aphrodisiacs did have measurable physiological effects, the vast majority did not, and their reported potency was likely the result of the good old placebo effect. So our boy Casanova could easily have skipped the platter of oysters; the power, it seems, was inside him the whole time.

Of the traditional aphrodisiacs which do have measurable physical effects, perhaps the most famous is Spanish Fly or Lytta vesicatoria. Not a fly but rather a variety of blister beetle with brilliant metallic-green wing cases, Spanish Fly is found all across Eurasia and has been collected and sold in powdered form as an aphrodisiac for centuries. A related insect, Palembus dermestoides or “Korean Bug” has long been used in East Asia for the same purpose.

The active ingredient in Spanish Fly is the terpenoid Cantharidin, a powerful vesicant or blister agent which the beetle secretes onto its eggs to protect them from predators. Cantharidin is severely irritating to human tissue, producing inflammation and increased blood flow that is believed to enhance sexual desire in both men and women. But as you can probably imagine, such a toxic substance can also have other, less desirable effects, although one perhaps unexpected includes priapism – a prolonged, extremely painful erection. One such alleged case was reported by French surgeon Ambroise Paré in 1572:

“We went to see a poor Oregonian man in Provence, who was affected by the most horrible and frightening satyriasis one could ever see. The fact is this; he had quartan fever: to cure it he had consulted an old sorceress, who made him a potion composed of an ounce and a half of nettles and two frames of catharses, which made him so ardent in the venereal act that his wife swore to us by her God that he had been astride her, during two nights, eighty-seven times, without thinking it more than ten…and even while we were interviewing him, the poor man ejaculated thrice in our presence, embracing the foot of the bed and moving against it as if it were his wife.”

And that is all history will ever remember of this bed humping Oregonian man.

While that all may seem to be a good time, Spanish Fly can have many side effects including severe chemical burns, gastrointestinal bleeding, kidney failure, convulsions, coma, and even death. Indeed, over the centuries Cantharidin has been implicated in many accidental deaths – usually when fed to the victim without their knowledge. For example, in 1772 the infamous Marquis de Sade gave sweet aniseed balls laced with Spanish fly to prostitutes in order to “set them on fire,” as you do. Unfortunately, the unlucky ladies of the night proceeded to die slow, agonizing deaths. The Marquis and his valet quickly fled to Italy, eventually being sentenced to death in absentia. And in 1954, London office manager Arthur Kendrick Ford was convicted of the poisoning deaths of two female coworkers whom he had surreptitiously fed candies containing the toxic aphrodisiac.

So, if you’re having troubles in the bedroom, it’s probably best to leave the Spanish Fly alone and also don’t consult a sorceress unless you want to be remembered a few hundred years later as a bed humper.

Instead, why not try another old favourite: chocolate.? Yes: chocolate, which not only stimulates the release of dopamine, serotonin, oxytocin and other neurotransmitters commonly associated with sex and pleasure, but also contains theobromine, a caffeine-like stimulant which can help keep you alert and focused during the act itself. It also contains quertcetin, a substance with anti-inflammatory properties that can help improve blood flow. Indeed, Aztec ruler Montezuma was rumoured to consume more than 50 cups of liquid chocolate before visiting his harem; while, as we’ve seen, elaborate chocolate desserts were among Casanova’s preferred pre-coital concoctions. But while a 2013 study published in the British Journal of Nutrition confirms that cocoa can increase blood flow to different parts of the body, there is no evidence that it or any other stimulating or “warming” foods like coffee, tea, ginger, or hot peppers can actually increase one’s sexual desire. Indeed, a 2021 study published in the Cureus Journal of Medical Science found just the opposite, determining that women who ate more chocolate had less interest in sex. It has been suggested from this that chocolate and other stimulating substances may act as a substitute for sex by providing a steady supply of pleasure-inducing hormones and neurotransmitters. So, when someone claims that chocolate is better than sex, they might actually be right… Or maybe just a sign someone’s needs aren’t being met and their partner seriously needs to up their game.

Potentially more effective is the bark of the Yohimbe tree or Pausinystalia johimbe, long used as an aphrodisiac by the peoples of central Africa. In 1896, at the height of German colonial expansion into Africa, a chemist named Leopold Spiegel obtained a sample of Yohimbe from Cameroon and managed to extract from it an alkaloid he dubbed yohimbine. Soon after, physiologist Adolf Löwy discovered that this compound was extremely effective at arousing sexual desire in animals including mice, cats, and dogs, hopefully not at the same time…

As a result, by the mid-1900s yohimbine was widely sold in pharmacies across Europe and North America as a potent aphrodisiac, being added to all sorts of tonics and potions. Among these was a product called Afrodex, which also contained methyl testosterone and, alarmingly, the poison strychnine – at that time commonly used as a recreational stimulant and performance-enhancing drug. Such tonics remained on the market for six decades until the 1960 amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act forced many such products off the shelves. By this time, however, physiologists had long known that while yohimbine is effective on some animals, it is almost useless as a human aphrodisiac because it turns out humans are not mice, cats, or dogs no matter what the furries wish to be true.

And what little effect it does have is limited to the relaxation of smooth muscle tissue and the slight enhancement of blood flow to the chonky bits – a task at which synthetic erectile dysfunction drugs like Viagra are many times more effective.

So, if traditional aphrodisiacs are just placebos, Spanish Fly is too dangerous, mild stimulants like chocolate, peppers, and yohimbine are much too weak, and Viagra just isn’t your style, what is a frustrated would-be Casanova to do? Well, maybe the problem is actually all in your head, and you simply need something to put you in an amorous frame of mind. Indeed, the third and final category of aphrodisiacs are those which produce mainly psychological effects. The most common of these are regular depressant drugs like opium, marijuana, and good old alcohol, which function mainly by removing the user’s inhibitions. Piper methusticum or Kava-Kava, a plant commonly consumed in Polynesia as a sedative and hypnotic, is said to have similar disinhibiting effects. However, one can have too much of a good thing, for over-consumption of these substances often results in a decrease in erectile function, an age-old paradox eloquently expressed by MacDuff’s porter in MacBeth:

“Lechery, sir, [drink] provokes, and unprovokes; it provokes the desire, but it takes away the performance.”

Alternative drugs often used as aphrodisiacs include MDMA – AKA Ecstasy or “E” -; Amyl Nitrite, a type of inhalant commonly known as a popper; and bufotenine, a hallucinogenic toxin extracted from toads and commonly used in traditional Chinese and West Indian medicine. MDMA in particular belongs to a class of psychoactive drugs known as empathogens or entactogens which can induce a powerful feeling of empathy, oneness, closeness, or emotional openness with others. This, combined with the drug’s stimulant and euphoric effects, theoretically make it ideal for stimulating sexual desire; however, as with alcohol and other sedatives, MDMA can also produce erectile disfunction along with other negative effects including hallucinations, paranoia, nausea, dehydration, insomnia, and severe bruxism or teeth grinding. Yet some doctors have suggested that in small, controlled doses, MDMA and similar drugs could be used as part of therapy.

Meanwhile, Amyl Nitrite works by rapidly relaxing smooth muscle tissues such as in the genitals and anal sphincter, while simultaneously producing a drop in blood pressure and an attendant rush of euphoria. However, just like MDMA, it can also produce temporary erectile dysfunction. But before you go reaching for the little blue pill to compensate, just know that using poppers and Viagra together can potentially cause a rapid fall in blood pressure, heart attack, and sudden death…. But what a way to go!

Now before we end this video, it is worth pointing out that there exists a Yang to the Aphrodisiac’s Ying: that is a class of substances which decrease rather than enhance libido. These are known, rather creatively as anaphrodisiacs. Like aphrodisiacs, anaphrodisiacs have been known about since antiquity, with Hippocrates claiming that peppermint lowered virility and should be avoided before sex. Strangely, Aristotle had previously claimed just the opposite, advising Alexander the Great to prevent his soldiers from drinking mint tea while on campaign as it was a powerful aphrodisiac either way because, again, and we cannot stress this enough- people in the past did not know what they were talking about half the time.

Today, well-known anaphrodisiacs include common depressants such as alcohol and opiates – which, as you’ll recall, can also act as aphrodisiacs in smaller doses. This is the golden rule of pharmacology: the difference between poison and medicine is only a matter of dosage. Indeed, a recent reevaluation of infamous case of turn-of-the-century murderer Dr. Harvey Crippen holds that Crippen was secretly dosing his wife Cora with scopolamine as an anaphrodisiac in order to avoid having sex with her. However, he misjudged the dose, accidentally killing Cora and prompting him to dispose of her body and flee the scene. But who hasn’t been there at least once before.

Other common anaphrodisiacs include antiandrogens like estrogen, cyproterone, and leprolide, which interfere with the production or action of male sex hormones. Such drugs are sometimes given to convicted sex offenders to help prevent them from reoffending, among others, a process commonly referred to as “chemical castration.” And finally, decreased libido is a common side effect of several psychiatric drugs, including many common antidepressant, anti-anxiety, and antipsychotic medications.

So, where does this leave us? Well, bad news, while certainly some substances can play a role in such shenanigans, even if only in your head, of the thousands upon thousands of substances used as aphrodisiacs throughout history, not a single one actually measurably shifts the needle in the way people usually mean when they say aphrodisiac.

Yes, some may disinhibit you or the like, and some may marginally treat your erectile dysfunction; no amount of oysters, corrosive beetles, or ambergris chocolate cream will measurably and consistently make you more virile or fertile. And they definitely won’t make someone fall madly in love with you against their will. Indeed, aside from Viagra and similar drugs, the only substance that can charitably be said to fit the classic definition of an aphrodisiac is the antidepressant medication Wellbutrin, which can counteract the anaphrodisiac effect of other antidepressants. It cannot, however, boost libido from baseline levels.

Of course, exercise, maintaining healthy body weight and muscle mass, a good, balanced diet and proper sleep cycle routine can help in spades on this, and improve quality of life in about every possible way we have to measure that. But, you know, KFC is so good, our screens are amazing at screening, and there are literally other humans outside and at the gym. Gross. And don’t even get us started in having to talk to your prospective partner and, like, turn them on with your words and actions. Double gross. Bring on the sorceresses and spanish fly! These beds aren’t going to hump themselves.

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